Śabda as ontology: Vedic epistemology and the philosophy of language

This article examines śabda (sacred sound, authoritative testimony) as both an epistemic and ontological category in Vedic philosophy, situating it within broader debates in philosophy of language. While Western philosophy of language (from Plato to Wittgenstein) investigates the relationship between words, meaning, and reality, Vedic thought uniquely posits śabda as itself ontologically fundamental. This study draws upon the Upaniṣads, Bhagavad Gītā, and Nyāya epistemology to show how Vedic traditions view revealed sound not merely as a medium of communication but as a mode of being, capable of transmitting reality itself.

In modern philosophy, language is often conceived as representational—a system of signs referring to external objects. In contrast, Vedic philosophy regards śabda as a direct channel of truth (pramāṇa). Unlike perception (pratyakṣa) or inference (anumāna), śabda—specifically āpta-vākya (the words of trustworthy authorities or revealed scriptures)—provides knowledge not accessible by other means.This perspective bridges ontology and epistemology: sound (śabda) is not only a means of knowing but an ontological force that constitutes reality.

Śabda in Vedic epistemology

Classical Indian epistemology (pramāṇa-śāstra) recognizes śabda as one of the primary means of valid knowledge. The Nyāya Sūtras define it as āptopadeśaḥ śabdaḥ—“the testimony of a reliable person.”

The Mīmāṃsā school, however, elevates śabda further, positing the Vedas themselves as eternal, authorless (apauruṣeya), and thus infallible.

The ontological grounding of śabda is evident in the Ṛg Veda (10.71):

catvāri vāk parimitā padāni tāni vidur brāhmaṇā ye manīṣiṇaḥ

guhā trīṇi nihitā neṅgayanti turīyaṁ vāco manuṣyā vadanti

“Speech has four levels. The wise know them. Three are hidden in secrecy, and humans speak only the fourth.”Footnote 1:

This verse suggests that language has hidden dimensions beyond ordinary expression, pointing to a metaphysical depth of śabda.

Śabda as ontology

The Chāndogya Upaniṣad (6.1.4) affirms:

'sa vā eṣa mahān aja ātmā yo ’yam vijñānamayaḥ prāṇeṣu hṛdy antarjotir'—indicating that ultimate reality is articulated through vibration, light, and consciousness.

Similarly, the Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad links the primal cause of existence to resonance.The most famous example is the primordial syllable Om (Aum).

The Mandūkya Upaniṣad states:

oṁ ity etad akṣaram idam sarvaṁ

tasyopavyākhyānam bhūtaṁ bhavad bhaviṣyad iti sarvam oṁkāra eva

“This syllable Om is all this. The past, the present, the future—all is but the syllable Om.”Footnote 2:

Here, Om is not symbolic but ontological—the very substance of existence.

Comparisons with western philosophy of language

Western philosophy, from Plato’s Cratylus to Wittgenstein’s Tractatus, has debated whether words have intrinsic connection to reality or are arbitrary conventions. The Vedic position leans toward intrinsicity: words, particularly revealed sounds, are real, eternal, and causally connected to the truth they signify.The Mīmāṃsā doctrine of śabda-nityatva (eternality of sound) anticipates modern discussions in structural linguistics and semiotics.

But unlike Saussurean arbitrariness, the Vedic model insists on metaphysical continuity between word and world.

Bhakti and the performative power of Śabda

In devotional traditions, śabda is not only ontological but also transformative. The Divine Name (*nāma*) is considered non-different from the Divine reality it denotes. The Bhāgavata Purāṇa (1.1.14) states:

nigama-kalpa-taror galitaṁ phalaṁśuka-mukhād amṛta-drava-saṁyutam

pibata bhāgavataṁ rasam ālayaṁmuhur aho rasikā bhuvi bhāvukāḥ

“The Bhāgavatam is the ripened fruit of the tree of the Vedas.

From the lips of Śuka it has become even more nectarean. O thoughtful devotees, drink again and again of this rasa.”Footnote 3:

In bhakti traditions, śabda is identical with rasa (divine essence), revealing that words are imbued with the reality they signify.

The Vedic conception of śabda challenges modern representationalist models of language by situating sound as both ontological and epistemological. Far from being arbitrary signs, sacred words embody and transmit reality itself. When compared with Western philosophies of language, Vedic thought offers a unique model where ontology, epistemology, and soteriology converge through the vibrational power of sound.

References

1. Upaniṣads: Mandūkya, Chāndogya, Śvetāśvatara.

2. Bhāgavata Purāṇa, 1.1.14.

3. Nyāya Sūtras; Mīmāṃsā Sūtras.

4. Staal, F. (1961). Nambudiri Veda Recitation.

5. Matilal, B. K. (1990). The Word and the World: India's Contribution to the Study of Language.6. Wittgenstein, L. (1922). Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.

Jambavati